Pedophiles and Lack of Harsher Punishment Essay

Pedophiles and Lack of Harsher Punishment - Essay Example Thus, for most people, the term pedophilia is not a legal term but a diagnostic one. Prosecutors and law enforcement in cases involving computers frequently use the word pedophilia (Borgeson and Kuehnle, 2010). Hall and Hall (2007) state that pedophilia is a clinical diagnosis generally made by a psychologist or psychiatrist. It is neither a legal nor criminal term like forcible sexual offense, and legal term id generally used in criminal statistics. There are laws that govern acts committed by pedophiles. One such law is the Megan’s law. However, it is difficult to estimate how the Megan’s law affects pedophiles. The definition of the term pedophilia does not allow the determination of whether the pedophilic individual is a sexual offender (a child molester) or not. It is important to note that not all pedophilic individuals are child molesters. An individual with any paraphilia condition can be legally involved in it through masturbation and fantasizing (Borgeson and Kuehnle, 2010). Punishments given to those who commit pedophilia usually vary. There are states where the punishment is harsher compared to other states. In regard to punishment, there is an ongoing debate on whether the punishment for those committing sexual assault crimes should be made harsher or not. However, majority of the people are of the opinion that harsher or tougher laws will reduce the occurrence of these crimes (CQ Press, 2006). Thus, punishments for those who have committed pedophilic crimes should be made harsher. Harsher punishment will reduce the rate of pedophilic crimes. The aim of this study is to evaluate the form of punishment given to sexual offenders such as pedophilic individuals and propose the punishments to be harsher or tougher. As stated before, experts are of the opinion that harsher punishment will reduce the incidences of sexual crimes. In some states, there are tests done to ascertain if the individual has really reformed before release from prison . In Texas, sixteen months before the release of an offender, the Texas Department of Criminal Justice can have the individual evaluated to know whether he is an SVP (sexually violent predator). If the individual is found to be an SVP, then he is eligible for treatment as an outpatient sex offender upon his release (Garib, 2011). The study is of great significance because the majority of the sex offenders are treated with blanket punishment, thus, they cause collateral consequences which develop more risk to the entire public (Hiller, 2011). Failure to treat pedophilic individuals and their release back to the society defeat the whole purpose of child protection. Despite the fact that experts are advocating for harsher punishments, there is a need for an individual to be treated before he is released to the society. This makes sure that the individual is fully reformed after he has served his sentence in prison and the risk of children being harmed is reduced. Literature Review A pe dophile and a child molester have been often confused by child abuse professionals, the media, and the general public. They regard pedophiles as all individuals who sexually victimize children. However, there is no uniform definition of the word pedophile. It is important to note that pedophilia is a psychiatric diagnosis done only by qualified psychiatrists or psychologists. Not all child molesters are pedophiles. As mentioned before, an individual suffering from any form of paraphilia can be legally involved in it through

Child labor in India & Peru Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Child labor in India & Peru - Essay Example One of the key reasons as to why children are being used in the force labor is to support their families due to poverty and other conditions. Lack of schooling and inadequate financial resources, caste system and other socioeconomic conditions force parents to engage their children in child labor Peru is another country with one of the worst records in terms of the child labor, however, its government is believed to be working towards the implementation of strategy to overcome this. What is critical to note that children in Peru are working under the hazardous conditions and are being employed mostly in the agriculture and mining sector? Recent data suggests that approximately 68% of the children under the working age are being employed in various sectors with majority being employed in the agriculture and mining sector. In agriculture sector, children are mostly assumed to be working for growing rice, sugarcane, barley and other crops indicating that the children may be involved in the hard labor wherein they may be forced to work in areas where they may not be suitable for this type of hard labor. The herding of livestock is another area where children are being employed or forced to work. (Bekele and Boyden). It is however, critical to note that most of the forced child labor in the country is in gold mines as mining is the second largest area where children are employed as workers. It is critical to note, however, that the working conditions in the gold mines are relatively difficult and hard for children.

Lease versus Buy Essay Example for Free

Lease versus Buy Essay When an individual is trying to decide whether or not to lease or buy, he or she needs to know the purchase cost, the lease cost, as well as the interest rate of a loan that will be used to purchase the item. The residual value of the item also must be known up front to help determine if leasing is the better option. When determining whether to lease or buy, the cash flow for both should be compared so the best decision can be made. Below is a chart on lease vs buy. (www.smartcomputing.com; Retrieved November 6, 2006) Lease/Buy Cash Flow Usually better from a short-term cash flow perspective. Frees up cash for other purposes while you generate income to pay the leases. You pay less overall but need to have available cash. Financing as an alternative costs more than a lease. Tax Treatment If properly structured, a lease may give your company a larger expense write-off than a purchase. Consult your tax advisor. Depreciation write-off is based on IRS rules for the type of equipment that you are buying. Consult your tax advisor. Upgrades- Many lease companies let you upgrade to newer equipment during the term of the lease without renegotiating. If you need newer equipment, you are on your own. However, simple upgrades (RAM, hard drive, etc.) cost you only whatever the upgrade is. Equity- At the end of a lease, you dont own the property, and you will need to replace it or buy it from the lease company.You own the equipment and can do with it whatever the needs of your business dictate. Disposal The lessor is responsible for whatever it costs to dispose of the equipment. You are on to your next set of computers. You can use the equipment for a different purpose within your company, sell it, or pay someone to recycle it for you, but disposal is up to the owner of the equipment. The first scenario is an organization called Bonnesante Research based out of Irvine, California. Bonnesante is set up with Venture Capitalist (VC) Funding. Bonnesante major focus is asset acquisition, which is why the Chief Financial Officer has to weigh the pros and cons of leasing vs buying. Bonnesantes is trying to determine if purchasing or leasing is the better option for a mainframe computer. I chose to lease the mainframe computer because the loan options have a higher outflow whereas the lease option of 18 months with no down payment has the lowest present value of cash outflows. Because the Mainframe would not be used through its entire economic life, it was better for the organization to lease the mainframe. If a loan was acquired to purchase the mainframe, the organization would have to record the purchase on the balance sheet and the depreciation and the interest payments would be recorded as expenses. If the organization was taxed then purchasing the mainframe would be beneficial because the depreciation and the interest payment would lower the outflows. In the second scenario Bonnesante Research is tasked with finding the best option to acquire a spectrometer. The options Bonnesante Research is faced with are: Operating Lease Capital Lease Loan After evaluating all the information, buying the spectrometer would be the best option for Bonnesante. Buying the spectrometer is beneficial because it is considered to be a long term asset with no threat of becoming obsolete. The spectrometer can be used for its entire economic life. An operating lease would not be beneficial because an operating lease is considered when equipment is to be acquired on a short term basis. The capital lease was another option but was not chosen because the 60 month capital lease would have cost more in present value terms than what the loan amount would have  been to purchase the spectrometer. If the organization had cash flow issues, then the capital lease might have been a better option. Whether the company pursued a capital lease or received a loan to purchase the spectrometer, both options can be recorded on the balance sheet so the organization can reap the benefits of depreciation. The final scenario is Bonnesante Research has been in operation for 6 years and wants to acquire a manufacturing facility. Bonnesante Research already has a facility in mind but that facility will require an upgrade. Bonnesante Research has the options of a capital lease or Bonnesante can purchase the facility by obtaining a loan. Also, Bonnesante Research has to keep in mind the organization is having a cash flow crisis that needs to be resolved. The challenge Bonnesante was faced with was to acquire the facility at the lowest cost possible and to resolve the cash flow shortage. Although the buy option was more expensive than the lease option, it gave Bonnesante more flexibility to upgrade the facility and to carry out a sale and leaseback transaction. Due to the leaseback transaction, Bonnesante was able to resolve the cash flow crisis. The leaseback option was more beneficial to Bonnesante rather than the bridge loan. The bridge loan is a short-term loan with a higher interest rate compared to long term borrowing. A bridge loan would have been more costly to Bonnesante Research and the organization could not afford to go with this type of loan. A sale and leaseback is beneficial to any organization that has a cash flow shortage. Selling the asset can bring forth a large amount of cash and the organization can retain use of the asset by leasing it back hence the name sale and leaseback. The risks involved with lease vs buying depends on an organizations financial status. Whether or not an organization decides to lease or buy is determined by what option is more beneficial to the organization. An organizations attitude toward acquiring assets and financial strength all affect the decision on leasing vs buying. Whether an organization leases or buys, the organization needs to make sure the asset that is being acquired will add value to the organizations capital budget. The advantage of computing present value considers all factors such as  inflation and forgone interest on money. That is, account must be taken of the fact that utilizing capital in investing in equipment could result in the loss of income that would have been earned if it were invested elsewhere. To properly evaluate the alternative cash flows, it is necessary to discount them and express them in terms of their present values, to determine their net present values. In summary the Net Present Value calculation determines todays value of future cash flows. (www.pngbd.com Retrieved November 6, 2006). When determining when to lease vs buy, an organization should take into account the financial and non-financial issues. When considering the financial aspect, it should include the cost to acquire an asset; if there will be a tax advantage, cash flow, and the benefits to the organizations balance sheet. The non-financial issues that should be considered are asset-management and the cost to dispose of obsolete equipment. In conclusion, under certain circumstance leasing is the better way to go rather than purchasing a capital item outright and vice versa. By leasing, it gives an organization a way to acquire up-to-date equipment while maintaining cash flow. By maintaining cash flow through leasing, an organization can use the cash flow for more pertinent renovations such as office expansion or research and development. Leasing has less of an impact on an organizations budget whereas purchasing an item outright has more of an impact on an organizations budget. Overall, leasing is a way for an organization to recognize operational savings and production improvements in a timely manner. Reference: Smart Computing; Lease vs Buy; Executive Decisions; March 2004, Vol. 8 Issue 2 Page(s) 55-57. (www.smartcomputing.com) Papua New Guinea Business Tourism; Making Capital Expenditure Decisions-Leasing vs Buying vs Borrowing; (www.pngbd.com Retrieved November 6, 2006).

Neurotransmitter Serotonin Cause Depression Psychology Essay

Neurotransmitter Serotonin Cause Depression Psychology Essay According to the World Health Organization, about 121 million people across the globe suffer from depression and the WHO has ranked depression as fourth in a list of most urgent problems worldwide (2). It is the most prevalent psychiatric disorder and is responsible for nearly 850,000 deaths every year. Supporting this fact, statistics have revealed that the use of anti-depressants has soared over 400 percent in the past two decades (3). According to Kresser, a licensed acupuncturist and practitioner of integrative medicine, several chemically distinct anti-depressants marketed under trade names such as Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil now enjoy immense popularity as anti-depressants (4). Amongst the four classes of anti-depressant medication, namely selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), atypical depressants, tricyclic anti-depressants (TCAs) and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), SSRIs have been the most widely prescribed medication by physicians. In this essay, the terms S SRI and anti-depressant will be used interchangeably. The current model of SSRIs assumes that a low level of extracellular neurotransmitter, serotonin, is primarily responsible for depression. Serotonin in our body can be found in two places 80 percent of it in our gastrointestinal tract while the rest in our brain (5). The 80 percent of serotonin function as hormones and they play a role in muscular contractions whereas the 20 percent act as a neurotransmitter in our brain (6). In our brain there are many cells called neurons, which are separated by small gaps. Messages carried by neurotransmitters are delivered from one neuron to another across the gaps. These messages come in the form of chemical impulses, and contain information about mood, behaviour, body temperature, appetite and sleep. Once a neurotransmitter leaves the sending neuron, it will latch onto the receiving neuron and relay chemical impulses over. Then the neurotransmitter returns to its sending neuron to be re-used again this process is called reuptake. On the other hand, if there are inadequate amounts of neurotransmitters, the next impulse does not fire off and messages will not be relayed. (7) SSRIs work to block or slow down the reuptake of serotonin in particular, hence increasing the amount of extracellular serotonin. As a result, more serotonin are present in the gaps which will increase rate of successful transmission of impulses to the receiving neuron. SSRI is hence engineered on the belief that serotonin is the cause of depression. However ever since the advent of the drug and its side-effects exposed, drug researchers are compelled to re-investigate the efficacy of SSRIs, in which confounding results were revealed. The investigation into the serotonin-depression link will not only prevent doctors making inappropriate prescriptions that may not be in the best interest of their patients health, it also allows a clearer definition of the causes of depression. Ultimately, establishing the proper function of serotonin may lead to a ground-breaking change in the methodology of treating depression and related disorders in the psychiatric and pharmacology world. While most people concur with the belief that a deficiency of serotonin is related to depression, some argue that an imbalance in serotonin levels leads to depression. This imbalance theory arises because of the widespread notion that SSRIs are only effective for patients with moderate to severe depression while it is ineffective for mildly depressed patients. The basis of the debate surrounding the efficacy of SSRIs in fact boils down to a deeper problem whether or not the neurotransmitter, serotonin, is related to depression at all. Nevertheless, I oppose both claims of the serotonin-depression link and contest that there is no coherence between levels of serotonin and depression. Up till now, there have no substantial evidence that depression is caused by serotonin deficiency, neither is there one that shows that over stimulation of serotonin causes depression. Efficacy of SSRIs challenged by small drug-placebo difference Many studies have shown that the efficacy of SSRI drugs in the treatment of depression is challenged by low drug-placebo difference scores. Studies to investigate the efficacy of anti-depressants by giving placebos to a controlled group have revealed that the recovery rate of patients who took a glucose pill was equivalent to patients who consumed the anti-depression drug (8). A 2008 meta analysis of the efficacy of SSRIs that was published by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), revealed that these anti-depressants have no clinically significant edge over all placebos. By this, it means that it did not meet the drug licensing authority, UK National Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE) standards. As evident in the meta analysis, the placebo response groups account for up to 75 percent of all positive effects of anti-depressant medication (9) which shows that 3 in 4 of all patients who reported an increase in heightened emotional well-being were actually consuming sugar pills. O ther studies yielded similar results a study by Khan et al. found a 10 percent difference in level of symptoms when patients consume the inert placebos compared to the active drugs in two separate meta-analyses (10). As the drug-placebo difference is small, it can be seen that regardless of whether SSRI is administered or not, symptoms of depression are still greatly reduced. This implies that serotonin level may not be related to depression at all. Opponents argue that experiments to test the efficacy of SSRIs against inert placebos may not be accurate because the side effects of SSRIs are not mimicked. They claim that commonly known side effects of SSRIs, such as diarrhoea, nausea, dizziness, headaches or even gastrointestinal bleeding (11) may affect patients mood, which in turn underrate the impact of serotonin in lifting depression. This claim is however rejected by many scientific literatures which show counter-evidences. According to Joanna Moncrieff, the co-chair person of Critical Psychiatry Network, when she used active placebos to simulate the adverse-effects of SSRIs in anti-depressant drug trials, results revealed that differences between active placebo and SSRI were significantly small (12). To measure severity of depression before and after the drug trials, the conventional Hamilton Rating Scale of Depression (HRSD) was used. Since it did not meet NICE standards of an improvement in rating score of 3 points to be defined as clinically significant (8), the above studies involving inert and active placebos clearly show that no matter which placebo type was administered active or inert, drug versus placebo significance in anti-depressant efficacy is clinically insignificant. Whether or not the level of serotonin is increased, patients reported a reduction in symptoms of depression, therefore there is little evidence to say that a lack of this neurotransmitter causes depression. Another common belief by proponents of anti-depressants is that initial severity of depression is directly related to the effectiveness of SSRIs, that SSRIs work best for patients with very severe depression. It is thought that over stimulation of serotonin may cause further chemical imbalance in patients suffering from mild depression, hence rendering SSRIs ineffective (13). Thus in order to test this claim, Kirsch et al moved on to investigate whether initial severity of depression affects the efficacy of anti-depressants. He tested on the hypothesis that anti-depressants work only for people suffering from moderate to major depression. In this double-blinded study of 35 clinical trials involving 5,133 subjects, both drug administers and subjects were unknown to results of randomized medication (placebo or SSRI) to prevent sampling biasness and subjects severity of depression was measured by HRSD (14). The test was conducted to see if there is an improvement in the subjects depress ion, measured against their baseline severity and the final conclusion is as follows: patients with an initial moderate depression did not report a drug-placebo difference, patients with an initial severe depression reported a relatively small drug-placebo difference and only for patients situated at the upper end of very severe depression category did the drug-placebo difference fall into the clinically significant criterion by NICE standards (8). Although effectiveness of SSRIs may seem to improve with the severity of depression, further research has revealed a negative coherence between severity and placebo response. As highlighted from Figure 1, the drug-placebo difference reached clinical standards for people with a higher initial severity of depression. Further analysis shows that a higher drug-placebo difference is due to a decrease in improvement of the placebo group rather than due to the effects of SSRIs. Figure 1. Mean Standardized Improvement as a Function of Initial Severity and Treatment Group, Including Only Trials Whose Samples Had High Initial Severity graph.png Source: http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/fetchObject.action?uri=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050045.g003representation=PNG_M This implies that the increased benefit for extremely depressed patients seems attributable to a response-deficiency to placebos rather than a heightened response to SSRI medication. Therefore efficacy of SSRI does not increase with severity of depression and increasing amount of serotonin did not work for patients with all levels of depression. Since SSRIs are designed to alleviate depression by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin in our brain cells, it shows that there is no relationship between extracellular serotonin and ones mood. Furthermore, it usually take weeks before effects of anti-depressants are expressed and can be measured by testing for serotonin levels in the blood, yet patients often report relief within hours or days of medication. Therefore this phenomenon demonstrates the lack of correlation between serotonin and depression and gives support to the placebo effect. The lack in correlation is further evidenced by the results of a Force Swim Test (FST). FST, also known as the behavioural despair test, is a conventional anti-depressant screening test which involves using rodents as test subjects. In this test, rats are dropped in an enclosed water cylinder and their movements observed. The struggling time of rats is measured based on the assumption that immobility of rats is directly proportional to their state of depression. For example depressed rats will cease trying and float in the cylinder, which is akin to despair, whereas non-depressed rats will continue to struggle in search of a way out (15). Although it is thought that SSRIs should extend struggling time of rats, final results were inconsistent hence inconclusive (16). The administration of SSRIs in rodents did not make them less susceptible to depression, displaying no direct relationship between serotonin and depression. Nonetheless, it should be noted that experiments done on mice ma y not be entirely accurate in predicting responses in humans (17). The bold assumption made by researchers The serotonin-depression link came about when scientists first discovered that in most depressed patients, the level of serotonin is comparably lower than that in non-depressed people. The amount of serotonin in a humans body was measured by comparing blood samples taken from depressed and healthy people. Subsequently the anti-depressant SSRI was invented, which targets the neurotransmitter serotonin and works to stimulate the production of it. This methodology then raises a few doubts. Firstly, the assumption that blood serotonin and brain serotonin are directly proportional can be contested as it is certainly impossible to measure the amount of serotonin in the brain. Patients who have high levels of serotonin in the blood may have low levels of serotonin in the brain and vice versa. As mentioned earlier, 80 percent of the humans body total serotonin is found in our bloodstream and the rest in the brain. While the level of blood serotonin can be measured, current biomedical technol ogy has yet to transcend the brain barrier. In all clinical trials involving SSRIs, the assumption made is that blood serotonin reflects brain serotonin, which is a very bold one to make. This then creates a paradox in research methodology: the reason for inventing SSRIs instead of feeding serotonin directly to a humans body is due to the blood-brain barrier. Orally ingested serotonin are ineffective as they do not pass through bloodstreams into the brain, that is the digestive system is unparallel to the central nervous system. Whereas SSRIs work because they merely seek to enhance an impulse that is already present, but too feeble to cross the gap. Yet scientists conveniently established a link between serotonin and depression by measuring serotonin in patients blood. It is reasonable to say that since blood serotonin is not proven to be a clear indication of brain serotonin, any positive outcomes of anti-depressant drug trials may not be due to the increase in brain serotonin bu t other unknown factors. This again shows a lack of tangible evidence between the neurotransmitter, serotonin, and depression. Secondly, in all probability that there is a direct attestation of serotonin deficiency in any mental disorder lacking, it is still unclear whether low levels of serotonin causes depression or depression causes a dip in serotonin. Evidences supporting the latter can be based on observations of non-depressed people with low amounts of serotonin. In a 1996 investigation of the biochemistry of depression, attempts made to induce depression by reducing serotonin levels yielded no consistent results (18). Similarly, researchers found that a surge in brain serotonin, arrived at by administering SSRIs, were ineffective at alleviating depression (19). Therefore there is little evidence to support serotonin as a mood chemical. Also problematic for the serotonin-depression claim is the expanding field of research comparing SSRIs to other anti-depression drugs that do not target serotonin specifically (20). For instance, the atypical anti-depressant buproprion (21) and St. Johns Wort (22), which do not alter the level of serotonin were proven to be just as effective as SSRIs in the treatment for depression. Therefore doubts about the serotonin-depression link are acknowledged by many researchers as well as by advocates of SSRIs (23). To supplement my stand, serotonin is not listed as the cause of depression disorder in the  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (24). The American Psychiatric Press Textbook of Clinical Psychiatry (25) also reiterates that serotonin deficiency as an unconfirmed hypothesis (20). In short, there exists no rigorous corroboration of the serotonin theory, which may suggest the reliability of positive drug trials published by drug companies. Conclusion In addition to what textbooks have to say about serotonin, it is important to look at what not being said in scientific literature. There are numerous peer-reviewed articles supporting the disconnect between serotonin and depression however not a single one can be precisely cited to directly endorse claims of a serotonin deficiency in any mental disorders (20). Assuming that blood serotonin is a good measure for brain serotonin, abundant evidences of high placebo significance in anti-depressant drug trials, the rejection of the claim that efficacy of SSRIs depends on severity of depression, and an inconsistent Force Swim Test results indicate that serotonin may not be the cause of depression. No doubt there may be a positive outcomes from the drug trials, however because blood serotonin may not reflect brain serotonin, these outcomes coupled with the above mentioned proofs against the serotonin hypothesis strongly suggest that other factors are involved in depression. The incongruenc e between the scientific literature and the claims made by proponents are prominent, hence I stand for the fact that there is no direct correlation between serotonin level and depression.

A Comparison of the Character of Brutus in Julius Caesar and Hamlet in

The Characters of   Brutus and Hamlet in Hamlet and Julius Caesar  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Written one year apart from the other, one cannot fail to recognize the parallels between William Shakespeare's tragedies Julius Caesar and Hamlet. To begin, they are both stories of assassinations gone horribly wrong. Although the details of the plays are different, the two assassins (Brutus and Hamlet) provide interesting comparison. Through these two killers, Shakespeare reveals the different levels of justice; one’s personal sense of justice; others’ perception of justice; the justice of the monarchy that supports Shakespeare’s craft. Through this, the audience realizes that a just person is not always a humble one, a condition that may turn out to be a fatal flaw in the end. When a man decides to play God by taking justice into his own hands, the world can unravel much more quickly than he had ever imagined.    Justice in Hamlet  is a conflict between two Bible teachings: The Old Testament says, "An eye for an eye," but the New Testament preaches, "Turn the other cheek." Hamlet’s peers beg him to let his father rest in peace and accept his mother’s remarriage, an act that would be in accordance with the New Testament. Claudius, Hamlet’s mother’s new husband, himself p... ... 36 Bradley., A. C. Shakespearean Tragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth. New York: Penguin Books, 1991. Durband, Alan. Shakespeare Made Easy: Julius Caesar. Barron's Educational Series, Inc.; New York. 1985. Mack, Maynard. â€Å"The World of Hamlet.† Yale Review. vol. 41 (1952) p. 502-23. Rpt. in Shakespeare: Modern Essays in Criticism. Rev. ed. Ed. Leonard F. Dean. New York: Oxford University P., 1967. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Ed. Suzanne L. Wofford. Boston: St. Martin's Press, 1994. Shakespeare, William. Julius Caesar. Ed. Alan Durband. London: Hutchinson & Co. Publishers Ltd., 1984.   

Black Plague Essay -- essays research papers

Living in Europe in the middle of the 1300’s would have been heartbreaking and dreadful. Not only were the living conditions very poor but there was an unknown disease that was wiping out a large percentage of European population. One cannot imagine the fear of wondering whether you or someone you loved was going to catch this deadly disease. No explanation would make a person feel safe from catching it or dying with it. The people of Europe just lived their lives as best they could realizing that nothing they do could ever stop this. They did not have the power to stop this it was far too beyond them. This unknown disease is known as the Bubonic Plague.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The plague was passed among many rodents by fleas. Most of the rodents were rats. Fleas living on the rat‘s blood would eject the disease into the rat causing it to die quickly. When there were no rats left around, the flea would search for a new host, such as a human. When an infected flea bit the human the bacteria multiplies quickly causing death within a few Days. One a person obtains this disease they can easily spread it among other humans by bacilli coughed or sneezed in to the air or by human fleas.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The plague had struck other parts of the world before it was first reported in Europe. The disease had been found in China and throughout India around 1332. Nomadic horsemen may have carried the plague westward between China and the Black Sea, where it apparently spread into Russia. Rumors had spread to Europe about the strange and terrible things happening in the East. Europeans began fearing this plague not knowing of its origin or cause. Eventually, the same unusual things started to occur in Europe and the plague was then reported to be in Europe.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As the bubonic plague spread across Europe it was called many names. Italians were dying by the thousands so they called it the Great Death. The Spanish called it Moroccan Fever, while Moroccans called it Mountain Fever. Most Europeans called it the Italian Fever or Italian Pestilence. It was not until later when the plague was called the Black Death. Black in Latin means dreadful, unlucky, and gloomy. This and because of black spots on the skin of many plague victims led the people to associate the word black with the plague. There a... ... servants or even people they loved. Poor people living in crowded, dirty towns and cities fled from those who came down with the disease. Wives abandoned sick husbands; parents deserted their diseased children. The sick were left to die and the dead was left unburied. Things in Europe were getting worse by the day. Until the day that so many died off that the few left were healthy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Before the plague, Europe had been severely overpopulated and almost in a great economic depression. Most of the land that could be farmed on had been abused. This made it difficult to grow food. After the plague ran its course food shortages grew even worse. Many of the survivors were reduced to eating cats and dogs. Some went too more extreme by eating their own children. The plague had seemed to solve the problem of population but it made worse the food and economic situation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Life for these people went on but was not enjoyed. Changes were to come but it seemed to take forever. Fear, horror, and death was known well by most of these people and the sorrow and despair for these people will never be forgotten.

Monitoring Offenders

Electronic Monitoring1 Electronic Monitoring of Offenders Electronic Monitoring 2 Abstract The project discusses different data and sources about electronic monitoring of offenders. The project includes a brief history of how it came about, different literature reviews about the topic, images of devices used to give the audience an idea of how monitoring offenders work, useful websites to look up further information about electronic monitoring of offenders, and some graphs and data of different offenders placed under house arrest and electronically monitored in the community.The main focus of the project is to provide an understanding of how electronic monitoring is used throughout the United States and some other parts of the world. Electronic monitoring is a way of tracking every offenders move and location through a computer via satellite or GPS (Global Positioning System). Electronic Monitoring3 Table of Contents Topic â€Å"Basics† Section†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Pp. 4-7 Li terature Review†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Pp. 8-13 Website References Section†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Pp. 14-18 Data Files†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Pp. 19-21 Topic â€Å"Explanation† Section†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Pp. 22-25 Appendices†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Pp. 26-27 Electronic Monitoring4 Topic Basics Electronic monitoring became a very useful way of serving a sentence for criminals. It can be used in many ways: track down the prisoner’s every move, sense to see if the person is drinking alcohol or taking narcotics. The device that is used can be traced back to the agency through via satellite or Global Positioning System (GPS). Electronic monitoring is important in the criminal justice system because it’s useful technology in monitoring sex offenders and those on probation or parole.I also think it is important that it decreases prison population and less expensive. It costs a lot more money to sentence someone to prison than to sentence someone to house arre st under electronic monitoring. According to Burrell, it costs about ten dollars a day to monitor an offender who is placed under house arrest. When it comes to sex offenders, I think electronic monitoring is important. For example, a sex offender cannot be within a 100 feet of a school and the electronic monitoring can tell the agency if he/she has passed by a school while going to work.House arrest is when the judge places you on home confinement or detention, he/she orders you to abide by specific terms and conditions that restrict your freedom and mobility. After all, home confinement is still punishment. It's simply more desirable than traditional incarceration. These terms include curfew restrictions, random drug testing, and home visits by a probation or parole officer. Depending on how severe the crime that was committed, the judge may not even allow the offender to attend work or school, travel to medical appointments, or tend to family obligations. Electronic Monitoring5El ectronic monitoring was developed back in the mid-1960s by a psychologist named Robert Schwitzgebel. It was inspired by the comic book of â€Å"Spiderman† (Burrell 2008) when the villain would track down the hero’s every move through a device. It led to the idea that instead of sending misdemeanor offenders to prison but rather incarcerate them in their home. In 1983, the first house arrest with electronic monitoring was sentenced by Judge Jack Love of Albuquerque, New Mexico (Howard 2001). Electronic monitoring became much popularized in the 1980s and was extensively used as an alternative to incarceration in jail or prison.Electronic monitoring is also an adjunct to traditional probation or parole supervision. Today, a couple of decades later, electronic monitoring shows renewed popularity with the interests of legislators (Burrell 2008). According to Howell (2010), there are two main types of electronic monitoring. One type is continuously signaling, which means tha t a transmitter is strapped to the subject and it broadcasts a coded signal over a telephone line at regular intervals. For example, this type can see if the offender is entering or exiting the range of unit (U. S. Department of Justice 1988).Another type of electronic monitoring is called programmed contact. This means that a computer will contact the offender to see if he/she is home or if they are violating their curfew. The computer will then verify if he/she has verified their location and if it’s the offender as well. Basic equipment that is used in this process is a simple ankle bracelet that looks similar to a beeper strapped around the offender’s ankle. The device then sends out a 24-hour signal to the monitoring agency, and the agency will be notified if the offender tampers with the device. The device is linked to the agency via Global Positioning System (GPS).GPS is the most advanced of the home detention devices. It uses commercial cellular networks to tra nsmit data 24-hours a Electronic Monitoring6 day to the monitoring agency. GPS tracking allows the supervising agency to create specific inclusion and exclusion zones, mapping, and tracking. The agency knows your exact whereabouts at all times (Shouse Law). â€Å"Nationwide, EMD programs are currently at an exploratory stage. In February 1987, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) conducted a survey of 53 electronic monitoring programs in 21 States, indicating that 800 offenders were being monitored.The typical offender was a sentenced male under the age of 30; in fact. Nearly 90 percent of the offenders were male, between age 14 and 78. About one-third were convicted for major traffic law violations – particularly drunk driving. In February 1988, NIJ's â€Å"1 – day count† found that monitors were being used in 32 States on approximately 2,500 offenders† (NIJ 1988). These are some major issues some legislators have to debate about with electronic monit oring. According to the NIJ, electronic monitoring in the beginning was only used for monitoring and verifying the offenders’ every move.As time passed, the technology of electronic monitoring became more advanced. The Secure Continuous Remote Alcohol Monitor (SCRAM) device is only ordered for the defendant, by the judge, who has been convicted of alcohol-related offenses (or who the judge believes may have an issue with alcohol). This alcohol bracelet continuously monitors alcohol concentration, not your whereabouts (Shouse Law). While blood and breath tests only measure sobriety at a specific point in time, SCRAM samples the offender’s sweat every half hour.This gives you complete 24/7 coverage, rather than just a snapshot look at when your offenders are on their best behavior. SCRAM’s flexible reporting functionality lets you specify how you want to receive information on each monitored offender – from full historical data to exception-based reporting. Either way, you receive the data you need on who offended, when Electronic Monitoring7 they offended, and the level of alcohol they consumed. Another advanced device of electronic monitoring that has been made in the 21st Century is the â€Å"drug patch. Drug patches are sometimes used to monitor those convicted of drug offenses. These patches are removed and replaced weekly. Once removed, they are tested for traces of marijuana, heroin, PCP, cocaine, and methamphetamines (SHouseLaw). According to California law, when the monitoring agency receives an alert that you have violated the exact terms and conditions that were imposed in connection with your house arrest, it notifies your probation or parole officer. California probation laws allow the probation or parole officer to arrest the offender without relying on a California arrest warrant.If the offender is following a probation or parole violation hearing, the judge must believe that the offender have violated the terms of his /her home detention. The judge may revoke the offender’s house arrest and order that person to serve the remainder of their sentence in jail or prison. This may lead to an economic problem in that state. Sentencing someone to prison cost over millions of dollars while electronic monitoring is only ten dollars a day (Burrell 2008). Electronic monitoring is important for the low cost it provides for the economy and justice can be served with community supervision.After learning a few basics on electronic monitoring, I have a bit of knowledge about how it is used and works technically. The basic instruments used for house arrest are things I already knew about before starting this project. However, I did not know about electronic monitoring devices that dealt with alcohol use and drug use. I would hope to become a probation officer after graduating college. The information provided for me was very useful in completing the project. Electronic Monitoring8 Literature Review 1) Bale s, W. , Mann, K. , Blomberg, T. , McManus, B. , & Dhungana, K. (2010).Electronic Monitoring in Florida. Journal of Offender Monitoring, 22(2), 5-12. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. The article provides an overview of the electronic monitoring program (EM) employed in Florida. A variety of supervision modalities in supervising felony offenders is depicted. It looks at the history and existence of the EM program stressing the changes in technology. The law and policies related to the operation are discussed and the current cost of EM to the state and the offenders is examined. Moreover, the residency restrictions placed on specified types of sex offenders is expounded. ) DeMichele, M. , Payne, B. K. , & Button, D. M. (2008). Electronic Monitoring of Sex Offenders: Identifying Unanticipated Consequences and Implications. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 46(3/4), 119-135. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. In recent years, increased legislative attention has been given to strategies to supervise se x offenders in the community. Among other policies, several states have passed laws calling for the use of electronic monitoring technologies to supervise sex offenders in the community. When initially developed, this community-based sanction was designed for less serious offenders.As a result, probation and parole officers who have been using electronic monitoring technologies have likely had little exposure to the sex offender population. Alternatively, those who have historically worked with sex offenders have had little exposure to electronic monitoring strategies. In the end, those supervising sex offenders in the community will need to be familiar with two divergent areas. 3) Cotter, R. , & Lint, W. (2009). GPS-Electronic Monitoring and Contemporary Penology: A Case Study of US GPS-Electronic Monitoring Programmes.Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 48(1), 76-87. doi:10. 1111/j. 1468-2311. 2008. 00545. x Criminologists have noted a significant reorientation of criminal justice policy. Initially this reorientation was most dramatically articulated by Feeley and Simon (1992) , who suggested that penalty has shifted from the ‘modern’ to ‘new’ penology. Criticisms of the binary ‘modern’ and ‘new’ penology model has led to the contemporary understanding of penalty through a threefold model of: ‘punishment-punitive’, ‘rehabilitative-humanistic’ and ‘managerial-surveillant’ discourses.This research represents an empirically-based attempt to locate GPS-electronic monitoring within this threefold model. 4) Martin, J. S. , Hanrahan, K. , & Bowers, J. H. (2009). Offenders' Perceptions of House Arrest and Electronic Monitoring. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 48(6), 547-570. doi:10. 1080/10509670903081359 This article reports on a study designed to examine the perceptions of house arrest (HA) and electronic monitoring (EM) among offenders who have recently experienced this criminal sentence.Data were gathered via a self-administered questionnaire and follow-up interviews with a sample of offenders. Our primary areas of interest were to assess (a) the extent to which HA and EM are perceived as punitive, (b) the extent to which this sanction impacts the offenders at home and at work, and (c) to explore the ways in which this criminal sanction impacts family members. While HA with EM was perceived as being less severe than incarceration, it is clear that HA with EM is experienced as a punitive criminal sanction.Electronic Monitoring 9 5) Pattavina, A. (2009). The Use of Electronic Monitoring as Persuasive Technology: Reconsidering the Empirical Evidence on the Effectiveness of Electronic Monitoring. Victims ; Offenders, 4(4), 385-390. doi:10. 1080/15564880903260611 The growing collection of evidence-based research reviews regarding criminal justice practices and programs is making an important contribution to the field in terms of identifying what works , what doesn't and what's promising.The purpose of this article will be to present the challenges and prospects associated with using evidence-based research reviews as a basis for promoting change in the application of electronic monitoring to individuals. In particular, the discussion will focus on how what we have learned about electronic monitoring from past reviews can inform the next generation of monitoring technologies for promoting offender change. 6) Hucklesby, A. (2011). The working life of electronic monitoring officers. Criminology ; Criminal Justice: An International Journal, 11(1), 59-76. doi:10. 177/1748895810392185 Monitoring officers are responsible for putting electronic monitoring (EM) policy into practice and ensuring that offenders are monitored and that alleged non-compliance is investigated. Arguably, they are a new criminal justice profession and exploring their working values and practices is important if we are to understand how EM operates and to address questions about its effectiveness. This article explores monitoring officers’ attitudes to their work and their working practices. It highlights how safety concerns impact upon their work and identifies a range of strategies which are used to deal with their anxieties.It also examines whether monitoring officers have an identifiable occupational culture concluding that while they share a working orientation, a strong cohesive occupational culture is absent. However, differences in working values were identified among monitoring officers, which mirror the range of working credos identified in other criminal justice professionals. The extent to which the work of monitoring officers is affected by EM being operated by the private sector is also explored as well as the policy implications of the findings. ) Blackwell, B. , Payne, B. , ; Prevost, J. (2011). Measuring Electronic Monitoring Tools: The Influence of Vendor Type and Vendor Data. American Journal Of Criminal Justice, 36 (1), 17-28. doi:10. 1007/s12103-010-9100-4 The rise in the use of electronic monitoring tools for management of individuals in both pretrial and post-release correctional stages of the criminal justice system necessitates increased collaboration of criminal justice personnel with private sector companies that provide monitoring services.Given this shift, it is necessary to explore whether agency employees perceive that different vendors are providing levels or quality of services. This study indicates that parole officers perceive very few real differences in the monitoring services, equipment used, and ease of installation and deactivation of such equipment across two different vendors. The primary difference identified was in the costs of such services. 8) Electronic Monitoring. (2011). Probation ; Parole Law Reports, 32(5), 84-86.The article discusses the findings of various cases about electronic monitoring of probationers in the U. S. The â€Å"State v. Franklin† case is highlighted which involves Thomas Franklin who remained on intensive supervision after being released from the residential program at Stark Regional Community Correctional Center (SRCCC). The â€Å"State v. Kandutsch† case which addresses issues concerning the use of a computer report generated by an electronic monitoring device is also emphasized. Electronic Monitoring10 9) KILLIAS, M. , GILLIERON, G. KISSLING, I. , ; VILLETTAZ, P. (2010). Community Service Versus Electronic Monitoring—What Works Better? : Results of a Randomized Trial. British Journal Of Criminology, 50(6), 1155-1170. doi:10. 1093/bjc/azq050 The present study is based on a controlled experiment in Switzerland with 240 subjects randomly assigned either to community service or to electronic monitoring. Measures of outcome include reconvictions, self-reported delinquency and several measures of social integration such as marriage, income and debts.The findings, based on subjects who successfully comple ted their sanction, suggest, with marginal significance, that those assigned to electronic monitoring reoffended less than those assigned to community service, that they were more often married and lived under more favorable financial circumstances. Electronic monitoring may be an alternative to non-custodial sanctions. With increasing demands for non-custodial sanctions, it is crucial having more alternatives available. 10) Marklund, F. , ; Holmberg, S. (2009). Effects of early release from prison using electronic tagging in Sweden.Journal Of Experimental Criminology, 5(1), 41-61. doi:10. 1007/s11292-008-9064-2 The meta-analyses that have to date been published provide no support for the contention that the use of electronic monitoring (EM) in the home as a substitute for the whole or part of a prison sentence might produce any positive effect in relation to reoffending. The few studies that these analyses are based on have a number of shortcomings, however; several of them are ver y small, and they often fail to provide a complete description of the elements that electronic monitoring programs include in addition to the monitoring itself.The study presented in this article has produced more positive results however. It focuses on the first 260 individuals to participate in an early release program that included electronic monitoring in the home. This group was compared with a register-based control group. In addition to electronic monitoring by means of an ankle bracelet, it was obligatory for program participants to have a daily occupation, which could be arranged by the prison and probation service if necessary, and they were subject to regular sobriety controls.The early release group reoffended to a significantly lesser extent than the control group did. It is not possible, however, to state to what extent this was a result of the electronic monitoring in the home or of the other elements included in the program. When the group was trichotomised on the ba sis of levels of prior involvement in crime, it was found that the difference between the early release group and the control group was particularly large among those with intermediate levels of previous criminality. 11) Button, D. M. , DeMichele, M. , ; Payne, B.K. (2009). Using Electronic Monitoring to Supervise Sex Offenders: Legislative Patterns and Implications for Community Corrections Officers. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 20(4), 414-436. The contemporary crime control policy arena is one in which many states and the federal government are passing increasingly punitive legislation authorizing, and often, requiring electronic monitoring of sex offenders. This article reviews exploratory legal data on relevant state codes of all 50 states in the United States. The authors review state statutes regulating he electronic monitoring of sex offenders to identify the characteristics of the legislation, the necessity of the laws, and the implications for probation and parole agenci es and officers. Eight patterns are identified through the content analysis of recent legislation regarding electronic monitoring of sex offenders. Policy implications are identified. Electronic Monitoring11 12) Barton, S. M. , ; Roy, S. (2008). Convicted Drunk Drivers in an Electronic Monitoring Program: A Preliminary Study. International Journal Of Criminal Justice Sciences, 3(1), 28-43.In the United States, electronic monitoring home detention programs were officially started in Palm Beach County, Florida, in 1984. Researchers have been assessing these programs since late 1980s. However, little attention has been paid to the impact of these programs on convicted drunk drivers. This study focuses on drunk drivers sentenced to electronic monitoring home detention program in a southwestern Indiana county from January 2002 to December 2003. Specifically, the objective of this study is to examine the characteristics of program participants and their exit status. 13) Padgett, K. G. , B ales, W. D. ;Bloomberg, T. G. (2006). Under surveillance: An empirical test of the effectiveness and consequences of electronic monitoring. Criminology ; Public Policy, 5(1), 61-91. doi:10. 1111/j. 1745-9133. 2006. 00102. x This study addresses the effectiveness of electronic monitoring (EM) for serious offenders supervised in the community. Using data on 75,661 offenders placed on home confinement in Florida from 1998 to 2002, we find that both radio-frequency and global positioning system monitoring significantly reduce the likelihood of technical violations, reoffending, and absconding for this population of offenders.Additionally, we find that offenders placed on home confinement with EM are significantly more serious than those placed on home confinement without EM, which casts doubt on the anticipated net-widening effect of this particular intermediate sanction. Policy Implications: Given the anticipated increase in the use of EM in the immediate future, policy makers will sur ely be faced with questions about its effectiveness in preventing or deterring further criminal activity among offenders in the community, as well as concerns about the intensity of urveillance it affords and a subsequent increase in the likelihood of a prison sentence or return to prison for technical violations. 14) Yeh, S. S. (2010). Cost-benefit analysis of reducing crime through electronic monitoring of parolees and probationers. Journal Of Criminal Justice, 38(5), 1090-1096. doi:10. 1016/j. jcrimjus. 2010. 08. 001 The objective of this study was to estimate the benefits and costs of using electronic monitoring (EM) and home detention to reduce crime committed by parolees and probationers.Data from a national survey of state prison inmates was adjusted and used to estimate the number of crimes that would have been committed by all parolees and probationers over the course of one year in the absence of EM and home detention. The data were analyzed in combination with existing an alyses of the effectiveness and costs of EM and home detention and the economic costs of crime to estimate the benefit-cost ratio of nationwide implementation of EM and home detention with all parolees and probationers. EM plus home detention could avert an estimated 781,383 crimes every year.The social value of the annual reduction in crime is $481. 1billion. Society would gain $12. 70 for every dollar expended on the proposed intervention. EM plus home detention could be an effective deterrent to crime and could have enormous social benefits, especially if it is applied early and saves what would otherwise be habitual offenders from a life of crime. 15) Nellis, M. (2006). Surveillance, rehabilitation, and electronic monitoring: Getting issues clear. Criminology ; Public Policy, 5(1), 103-108. doi:10. 1111/j. 1745-9133. 2006. 00104. The author states that while there are reasons to believe that both radio-frequency and global positioning forms of electronic monitoring add some cont rol over an offender that conventional Electronic Monitoring12 probation supervision cannot provide, there are no good reasons to believe that they have a rehabilitative effect by themselves. Restricting offenders to their homes or tracking their movements cannot accomplish the real goal of changing offenders' attitudes and cannot equip them with skills that enable them to desist from crime. 6) Is Electronic Monitoring Equivalent to Imprisonment?. (2011). Journal of Offender Monitoring, 23(2), 5-6. The article discusses a court case wherein Brian Horsman who was charged by the State of Illinois with felony driving with revoked license has requested the court that he be placed on electronic home monitoring as a means of fulfilling the statutory requirement that he be sentenced to imprisonment. 17) Haverkamp, R. , Mayer, M. , & Levy, R. (2004). Electronic Monitoring in Europe. European Journal Of Crime, Criminal Law & Criminal Justice, 12(1), 36-45. oi:10. 1163/1571817041268847 This a rticle deals with the practice of electronic monitoring in European prisons. As of 2004, most industrial societies in Western Europe have found themselves burdened with overcrowded prisons and limited financial resources. Allegedly, more repressive crime policies led to the sentencing of longer prison sentences for violent, drug and sexual offenders. Restrictive reforms concerning parole, aggravations in sentencing and categorization caused increases in the time actually spent in prison for many inmates.In addition, nearly all countries opting to use electronic monitoring have such conditions in common. Within such a context, electronic monitoring can be seen as one of the most promising alternatives to incarceration specifically adopted for the relief of the problem of overcrowding. Apparently, electronic monitoring was already in use in many Western European countries. Projects using electronic monitoring are well-established in the penal and correctional systems in England, Swede n and the Netherlands.Pilot projects can be observed in Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Switzerland and Spain. One objective was to analyze the normative frameworks of electronic monitoring in the Western European countries which ran a trial or implemented a program on the option. 18) Electronic Monitoring Is Not Detention. (2011). Journal of Offender Monitoring, 23(2), 18. The article discusses a court case wherein minor Lorenzo L. was confined to the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation after he admitted that he committed kidnapping, street terrorism, and assault with a deadly weapon.The defendant appealed arguing that the juvenile court failed to award him predispositional credit for 28 days he spent in an electronic monitoring program. The court rejected Lorenzo's contention since his electronic monitoring was not physical confinement. 19) Armstrong, G. S. , ; Freeman, B. C. (2011). Examining GPS monitoring alerts triggered by sex offenders: The div ergence of legislative goals and practical application in community corrections. Journal Of Criminal Justice, 39(2), 175-182. doi:10. 1016/j. jcrimjus. 2011. 01. 006 The purpose of this article is bout legislative mandates that require GPS monitoring of offenders add to the existing logistical complexities of community supervision. Challenges in implementing GPS policies and practices are heightened by the lack of sound empirical research. Studies examining the relationships between GPS monitoring of sex offenders in the community and the legislative goals of public safety, deterrence, and cost effectiveness are virtually nonexistent. To begin to address this gap in the literature, this study examines the impact of a Electronic Monitoring13 tatutorily-based GPS monitoring program for adult sex offenders convicted of dangerous crimes against children and placed under community supervision. 20) Renzema, M. , ; Mayo-Wilson, E. (2005). Can electronic monitoring reduce crime for moderate to high-risk offenders?. Journal Of Experimental Criminology, 1(2), 215-237. doi:10. 1007/s11292-005-1615-1 All electronic monitoring(EM) programs aim to suppress the criminal behavior of offenders being monitored and its advocates have always hoped EM could be instrumental in reducing long-term recidivism.This review investigates the history of EM and the extent to which EM empirically affects criminal behavior in moderate to high-risk populations. All available recidivism studies that included at least one comparison group between the first impact study in 1986 and 2002 were considered for the review. Although variants such as GPS tracking and continuous testing for alcohol in perspiration have recently emerged, no studies of these technologies were found that met the review’s inclusion criteria. Studies are examined and combined for meta-analysis where appropriate.Given its continued and widespread use and the dearth of reliable information about its effects, the authors conclude that applications of EM as a tool for reducing crime are not supported by existing data. Properly controlled experiments would be required to draw stronger conclusions about the effects of EM. Electronic Monitoring14 Website Reference Section This section will be based on different websites from the World Wide Web where you will be able to look up information about electronic monitoring.The websites provide useful information on different types of electronic monitoring and different methods that are used around the United States and other countries around the world. The websites may also provide some statistics about those under monitored surveillance. Name of Site: Center for Criminology and Public Policy Research URL of Site: www. criminologycenter. fsu. edu URL of Page: http://www. criminologycenter. fsu. edu/p/electronic-monitoring. php Date of Access: December 16, 2011 This site discusses different research done on electronic monitoring.It begins to talk about differen t statistics about offenders monitored under electronic monitoring. For example, it says â€Å"As early as 2000, more than 30,000 criminal offenders living in the community in the U. S. were monitored by electronic surveillance equipment for at least one day. † The site is maintained by the Florida State University’s Criminology Center and its most recent update was on May 18th, 2009. Name of Site: State of Michigan Department of Corrections URL of Site: www. michigan. gov URL of Page: http://www. michigan. gov/corrections/0,4551,7-119-1435_1498-5032–,00. tml Date of Access: December 16, 2011 This page talks about the different programs the state of Michigan has about electronic monitoring system. It also discusses a brief history of how the system became more used throughout the state during the 1980s. It then gives information on different devices the Corrections use to track offenders. The site is maintained by the State of Michigan. Name of Site: Free Advice URL of Site: www. freeadvice. com URL of Pagehttp://criminal-law. freeadvice. com/criminal-law/parole_probation/house_ar rest. htm Date of Access: December 16, 2011The site is search engine website for law advice and other criminal law topics. The page discusses different key terms about the topic of electronic monitoring. For example, it tells us what house arrest is and how it is monitored. The site is maintained by Gerry Goldsholle and was last updated on June 02, 2009. Name of Site: Oakland County Michigan Community Corrections Division URL of Site: www. oakgov. com URL of Page: http://www. oakgov. com/commcorr/program_service/electronic_monitor. html Date of Access: December 16, 2011 Electronic Monitoring15 This site provides different technology used in the county’s corrections unit.It talks about how it is used throughout the entire county and the programs they provide for different offenders. The last update was on October 12, 2006 and is maintained by the State of M ichigan. Name of Site: Electronic Monitoring Resource Center URL of Site: www. du. edu URL of Page: https://emresourcecenter. nlectc. du. edu/ Date of Access: December 16, 2011 The page discusses on data of electronic monitoring use in the Denver area of Colorado. The features are outlined in different categories from types and different genders of offenders. The page is maintained by the University of Denver and was last updated May 20, 2010.Name of Site: DUI Foundation URL of Site: www. duifoundation. com URL of Page: www. duifoundation. org/legalguide/sentencingalternatives/electronicmonitoring/ Date of Access: December 16, 2011 The page discusses on how electronic monitoring works on an alcoholic who is under house arrest due to a DUI incident they committed. It talks about the device used on alcoholics to track down if they are consuming alcoholic beverages throughout the day 24/7. The owner’s of the website information was withheld and the site was last update on June 1 0, 2011. Name of Site: Leaders in Community Alternatives, Inc.URL of Site: www. lcaservices. com URL of Page: http://www. lcaservices. com/pages/equipment. html#gps Date of Access: December 16, 2011 The LCA, Inc. website discusses on the different equipment used to monitor offenders electronically. It’s basically like an advertisement for law enforcers so that they may use their technology to track down offenders; however, it provides useful information on the different devices. The website is maintained by Jesse Dudan and was last updated on May 16, 2011. Name of Site: Electronic Monitoring Services. LLC URL of Site: www. indyems. orgURL of Page: http://indyems. org/monitoring. aspx Date of Access: December 17, 2011 The website talks about different data and devices used on an offender while under house arrest. The site is maintained by Marvin Royston Jr. and was last updated on February 28, 2011. Name of Site: Office of Justice Program URL of Site: http://www. ojp. usdoj. g ov/ URL of Page: http://www. ojp. usdoj. gov/BJA/pdf/IACPSexOffenderElecMonitoring. pdf Date of Access: December 17, 2011 This site is a PDF file and provides information of keeping track of sex offenders in the community through GPS surveillance.The website is maintained by the Office of Justice in Washington D. C. and has no recent update. Electronic Monitoring16 Name of Site: National Audit Office URL of Site: www. nao. org. uk URL of Page: http://www. nao. org. uk/publications/0506/the_electronic_monitoring_of_a. aspx Date of Access: December 17, 2011 The website provides information about the programs used in the United Kingdom for electronic monitoring. It provides a full report of offenders under surveillance of electronic monitoring. The site is maintained by the National Audit Office and was last updated on November 1, 2011.Name of Site: The British Journal of Criminology URL of Site: www. oxfordjournals. org URL of Page: http://bjc. oxfordjournals. org/content/31/2/165. sh ort Date of Access: December 17, 2011 This website provides information about how the British go about electronic monitoring around the country. This website is maintained by the Oxford University Press and was last updated on October 5, 2009. Name of Site: National Criminal Justice Reference Service URL of Site: www. ncjrs. gov URL of Page: https://www. ncjrs. gov/app/abstractdb/AbstractDBDetails. aspx? d=176698 Date of Access: December 17, 2011 This site provides information and data about the costs of electronic monitoring throughout the United States of America. It gives some background information of electronic monitoring of offenders and how it costs a little less than sending someone to prison. Name of Site: National Criminal Justice Reference Service URL of Site: www. ncjrs. gov URL of Page: https://www. ncjrs. gov/App/abstractdb/AbstractDBDetails. aspx? id=116750 Date of Access: December 17, 2011 The website is a government website by the Department of Justice.The informati on provided gives an article about the effectiveness of electronic monitoring of offenders throughout the United States. It shows points of views by offenders and also correction officers. Name of Site: Springer Link URL of Site: www. springerlink. com URL of Page: http://www. springerlink. com/content/w6x762q2242n8l44/ Date of Access: December 17, 2011 This site discusses the traits offenders do while they are incarcerated under house arrest. This shows the different opinions of offenders. Some believe it’s better than prison while others think that it’s torture. The site is maintained by Springer Science ; Business Media B.V. and was last updated on January 30, 2011. Name of Site: National Criminal Justice Reference Service URL of Site: www. ncjrs. gov URL of Page: https://www. ncjrs. gov/App/abstractdb/AbstractDBDetails. aspx? id=139140 Date of Access: December 17, 2011 Electronic Monitoring 17 This website provides more information about the effectiveness and techn ology that has been used to track down different offenders. This article focuses mainly on the sex offenders and how they can be a danger in society even if they’re under electronic monitoring and following up with their parole officer.Name of Site: National Criminal Justice Reference Service URL of Site: www. ncjrs. gov URL of Page: https://www. ncjrs. gov/App/abstractdb/AbstractDBDetails. aspx? id=108602 Date of Access: December 17, 2011 The site is provided by the US Department of Justice. This page provides an article based on how different methods are used to make sure the offender is properly placed within their boundaries if you may say and that they’re not going elsewhere. Name of Site: National Criminal Justice Reference Service URL of Site: www. ncjrs. gov URL of Page: https://www. ncjrs. gov/App/abstractdb/AbstractDBDetails. aspx? d=176261 Date of Access: December 17, 2011 The website provided can give useful resources and information about tracking down dru g addicts with the Drug Patch. It detects whether or not an offender who had a drug problem and was incarcerated in the past if they are taking illegal narcotics in their system. Name of Site: Google URL of Site: www. google. com URL of Page: http://www. google. com/patents? hl=en;lr=;vid=USPAT4736196;id=XW46AAAAEBAJ;oi=fnd;dq=electronic+monitoring+offenders;printsec=abstract#v=onepage;q=electronic%20monitoring%20offenders;f=false Date of Access: December 17, 2011The source was found via Google Patents. This site provides a diagram and blueprint of a home detention monitoring device. It shows what parts of the device gives off the alarm to alert officials that the offender has left the premises and how it carries out via satellite. This website is maintained by Google, Inc and was last updated on July 20, 2011. Name of Site: National Criminal Justice Reference Service URL of Site: www. ncjrs. gov URL of Page: https://www. ncjrs. gov/App/abstractdb/AbstractDBDetails. aspx? id=190283 Date of Access: December 17, 2011The website of the page above provides information about juveniles under electronic monitoring. The article suggested that electronic monitoring is not a harsh punishment and juveniles may most likely be placed under house arrest or probation. Electronic Monitoring18 Name of Site: Google URL of Site: www. google. com URL of Page: http://books. google. com/books? hl=en;lr=;id=mCOfWKwfpQYC;oi=fnd;pg=PA224;dq=electronic+monitoring+offenders;ots=H6cgo3OoGd;sig=sKrBNiIgGjT_kxe0gcoehWJrT7Q#v=onepage;q=electronic%20monitoring%20offenders;f=false Date of Access: December 17, 2011The article was found via Google Books. The article is a chapter from a book and talks about the average crimes committed in order to be placed under house arrest. Usually those crimes are less serious but you can be on parole and be under electronic monitoring. This site is maintained by Google, Inc. and was last updated on August 23, 2011. Electronic Monitoring19 Data Files Source: U. S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics (2004) | Compendium of Federal Justice Statistics, NCJ 213476 | Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Justice p. 95. | Electronic Monitoring20 Source: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Prison and Jail Inmates at Mid| year 2000, Bulletin NCJ 185989, p. 6; 2003, Bulletin NCJ 203947, p. 7; 2005, Bulletin NCJ 213133, | p. 7; 2006, Bulletin NCJ 217675, p. 21; Jail Inmates at Midyear 2010-Statistical Tables, NCJ | 233431, p. 12 (Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Justice). Table adapted by SOURCEBOOK | Electronic Monitoring21 Number of Offenders Under Home Detention 1995-2010 Source: U. S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Prison and Jail Inmates at Mid| year 2000, Bulletin NCJ 185989, p. ; 2003, Bulletin NCJ 203947, p. 7; 2005, Bulletin NCJ 213133, | p. 7; 2006, Bulletin NCJ 217675, p. 21; Jail Inmates at Midyear 2010-Statistical Tables, NCJ | 233431, p. 12 (Washington, DC: U. S. Departme nt of Justice). Table adapted by SOURCEBOOK | staff. | | | | | | | | | Electronic Monitoring22 Topic Explanation Electronic monitoring of offenders has been around since the early 1980s. Since then, the technology used has enhanced in many different ways. The technology started from a simple ankle bracelet to technology letting authorities know if you have been taking drugs or drinking alcoholic beverages.The legal definition of electronic monitoring means that it allows the release of a person into the community, during what could have been jail time, and obliging the individual to record his or her whereabouts at all times or on regular intervals using electronic or telecommunication devices (Duhaime. org 2009). Electronic monitoring is a frequent feature of a probation or bail order. Electronic monitoring was inspired by a Spiderman comic book that was read by Judge Jack Love of New Mexico (Howard 2001). Judge Love thought to create a real device from the comic book with the help of an electronics technician in 1983.On that same year, Love sentenced his first offender to house arrest with electronic monitoring (Howard 2001). Most electronic monitoring devices do not simply track the offender’s movement, but they simply confirm whether the subject is at an approved place approved times (Howard 2001). A Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) technology is the most common device used in electronic monitoring. This type of technology allows a correctional client to be precisely located around the world for 24 hours and 7 days a week. However, as technology develops, there are three really important pieces of technology in electronic monitoring.They are, regular house arrest ankle bracelets, SCRAMx, and drug patches. All these technologies are the most common use of detecting not only an offender’s location, but also his or her alcohol in-take. The SCRAMx System began over the past six years. This device became popular in the courts by issuing them to those who are dangerous to the public due to their excessive drinking. Electronic Monitoring23 The SCRAMx combines with the continuous alcohol monitoring (CAM) which detects the alcohol in-take of an offender.What makes SCRAMx different is that it is alcohol monitoring combined with house arrest technology (Alcohol Monitoring 2011). After the court has sentenced someone to be under house arrest due to excessive alcohol or drunk driving, they must wear the SCRAMx bracelet. The SCRAMx bracelet tests for alcohol every 30 minutes throughout the day, 24/7. It also monitors curfews and schedules of when an offender can be home or go to work/school. The SCRAMx bracelet also incorporates multiple sensors to detect attempted tampers, obstructions, or removal attempts (Alcohol Monitoring Systems 2011).All of this information is sent from the bracelet to the SCRAMx Base Station. The Base Station is plugged into an analog telephone line at the offender’s home or work place and uploads al l available data from the SCRAMx bracelet. After it stores the information, it sends alcohol readings, tamper alerts, and diagnostic data to what is called SCRAMnet for further readings. SCRAMnet analyzes the data it receives from the base station and identifies any alerts such as, alcohol consumption, environmental interference, tampers/removals, and missed communications.The SCRAMnet will alert the agency or appropriate contact person if the offender has violated any of his/her sentence. This technology will take all the recorded data will send it to the official via LCD screen with graphs and charts of every test or tamper report. These reports can be accessed around the clock from any location using a standard web browser and you may check on multiple offenders who are under this device. In my opinion, the ways this device can improve are that everyone who goes out to drink at the bar and were driving should wear one.If the drinker has gone over the percentage of drinking, the d evice should alert police officers and make sure that person isn’t driving when they leave the bar. Electronic Monitoring 24 Drug patches are another type of electronic monitoring. These devices are sometime used to monitor those convicted of violating drug laws. The drug patches are a lot similar to the SCRAMx device only difference is, once you remove the patch, it automatically tests for drugs of many kinds. The patch tests for traces of marijuana, heroin, PCP, cocaine, and methamphetamines.Just like the SCRAMx, the drug patch will alert authorities if someone has taken drugs. The drug patch is removed and replaced weekly. The patch takes the sweat and bodily fluids from the skin and hair which then is test for drugs on a scanner. House arrest comes into play here because the offender is also wearing the ankle bracelet so authorities know where the offender is located and not violating their parole release. The problem with this technology is that the cost may increase bec ause two different types of electronic monitoring are in use at the same time.As technology becomes more advanced as the years go by, the drug patch should be just like the SCRAMx device. The drug patch should be able to report any signs of drug use to authorities right away 24/7. The drug patch should also be able to determine the location of the offender. The offender should be home or at work while under the drug patch. The final piece of technology with electronic monitoring is the basic house arrest ankle bracelet. This sentence is usually given to misdemeanor offenses and those sentenced to probation or released on parole (Howard 2001). This device is basic and it works very simple.The ankle bracelet is worn by the offender and it gives data and exact location of the offender to a base station device. The offender will most likely have a curfew and has only a certain amount of time to go to work and back home. The ankle bracelet will send off alerts to the base station and wil l alert authorities about the offender’s whereabouts. The bracelet will also send out an alert if the device has been tampered with or removed off the offender’s ankle. The problem with Electronic Monitoring25 the offender removing the ankle bracelet is that he or she may remove it and attach it onto an animal passing by.This can throw authorities off and confuse the location of the offender. This device can also be used on sex offenders because they may be prohibited from being around a certain area. For example, a child sex offender will receive the house arrest bracelet and may go to work, however, they may not pass by a school filled with children or minors. The ankle bracelet will alert the officials if the offender has passed by a school (Whitefield 1997). The problem with this is that the device cannot detect if children are in the area or hidden in their home.They send an officer to check but some probation officers may be careless and overlook different things . In order to advance technology in this situation, officials should order surveillance cameras in the offender’s home to check for inappropriate sexual actions or material in the home. If the offender tampers with the tapes, it will alert authorities that the offender has tampered or removed from its place (Whitefield 1997). Electronic monitoring is best source of technology for tracking down offenders placed under house arrest or taking alcohol or drugs.The technology is basic GPS satellite technology. The types of technology mentioned above are continuing to become more and more advanced as we move on. The technology has its flaws in my opinion; however, it can be useful 90 percent of the time while tracing an offender’s every step and what he or she may consume into their bodies. The SCRAMx device has to be the most useful for those who committed DWIs or those with alcoholic problems. However, in general, house arrests are a good way to rehabilitate an offender esp ecially those who committed crimes while intoxicated.It can set them in the right state of mind and change their ways when their sentence is over. Electronic Monitoring26 Appendices Glossary House arrest- allows a person who is sentenced to a jail term to spend the time at his home as an alternative to being physically confined to jail. Electronic home detention- monitored using an electronic sensor strapped to an offender’s ankle and linked by telephone lines to a central computer which emits a continuous signal. Probation- literally means testing of behavior or abilities. In a legal sense, an offender on probation is ordered o follow certain conditions set by the court. GPS Tracker- is a device that uses the Global Positioning System to determine the precise location of a vehicle, person, or other asset to which it is attached and to record the position of the asset at regular intervals. Electric monitoring- a form of non-surreptitious surveillance consisting of an electron ic device attached to a person or vehicle, especially certain criminals, allowing their whereabouts to be monitored. SCRAMx System- combines continuous alcohol monitoring (CAM) with house arrest technology in one court-validated device.Now with wireless capabilities, SCRAMx: tests for alcohol every 30 minutes, 24/7, monitors curfews and schedules, gives comprehensive information on the entire 24/7 monitoring period. Electronic Monitoring27 Bibliography Bales, W. , Mann, K. , Blomberg, T. , McManus, B. , ; Dhungana, K. (2010). Electronic Monitoring in Florida. Journal of Offender Monitoring, 22(2), 5-12. Howard, J. (2001). Electronic monitoring. The Reporter. Retrieved from http://www. johnhoward. ab. ca/newslet/may2001/May2001. pdf Whitefield, D. (1997). Tackling the tag: The electronic monitoring of offenders. Waterside Press